English textbooks

There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves; they are attached to the brain and are transmitted through foramina in the base of the cranium. The different pairs are named from before backward as follows: 1st. Olfactory, 2d. Optic, 3d. Oculomotor,…

THE ORGANS of the senses may be divided into (a) those of the special senses of taste, smell, sight, and hearing, and (b) those associated with the general sensations of heat, cold, pain, pressure, etc. The Organ of Smell (Organon…

Neural pathway A neural pathway is a neural tract connecting one part of the nervous system with another, usually consisting of bundles of elongated, myelin insultated neurons, known collectively as white matter. Neural pathways serve to connect relatively distant areas…

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM is the most complicated and highly organized of the various systems which make up the human body. It is the mechanism concerned with the correlation and integration of various bodily processes and the reactions and adjustments of…

There are certain organs which are very similar to secreting glands, but differ from them in one essential particular, viz., they do not possess any ducts by which their secretion is discharged. These organs are known as endocrine glands. They…

Immune system unites organs and tissues, which provide defense from genetically foreign cells or matters, that got from out or are generated inside the organism, providing constancy of internal organism environment. Organs of immune system may be divided into central…

Genital Glands.—The first appearance of the genital gland is essentially the same in the two sexes, and consists in a thickening of the epithelial layer which lines the peritoneal cavity on the medial side of the urogenital fold. The thick…

Genital Glands. The first appearance of the genital gland is essentially the same in the two sexes, and consists in a thickening of the epithelial layer which lines the peritoneal cavity on the medial side of the urogenital fold. The…

Organs of breath The word “respiration” describes two processes. Internal or cellular respiration is the process by which glucose or other small molecules are oxidised to produce energy: this requires oxygen and generates carbon dioxide. External respiration (breathing) involves simply…

THE MUSCLES are connected with the bones, cartilages, ligaments, and skin, either directly, or through the intervention of fibrous structures called tendons or aponeuroses. Where a muscle is attached to bone or cartilage, the fibers end in blunt extremities upon the…

General doctrine about joints. Ontogenesis of articulations The bones of the skeleton are joined to one another at different parts of their surfaces, and such connections are termed Joints or Articulations. Where the joints are immovable, as in the articulations…

Tissues and organs In human body they distinguish some levels of the organization: connective tissue – less elasticity – wrinkles cartilage – less elasticity – degenerative changes such as osteo-arthritis with associated changes. Costal cartilages often replaced by bone: bony…